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Criminal justice system action to prevent crime is a tertiary-level prevention measure (that is, after offences have occurred). It is conventionally seen as operating directly through deterrence (for example, the criminal law code and certain forms of policing), incapacitation, and rehabilitation (that is, courts and prisons, including probation and parole services) and indirectly through effects on socialisation (for example, the promotion of social norms).

Programs to prevent and reduce violence often adopt a public health approach to crime prevention. Such an approach does not replace criminal justice or other crime prevention approaches. Rather, it complements them by bringing a different view and other important players, tools and resources to the task of preventing and reducing crime.

There is no simple or single solution to violence. It is a multifaceted problem with biological, psychological, social and environmental roots. Therefore, violence must be addressed on multiple levels and in multiple sectors of society simultaneously. In issue no. 7 of this series, the public health approach to the prevention crime and violence was briefly summarised. Here, some examples of specific violence prevention interventions are described.

Violence in the workplace is an emerging problem affecting increasing numbers of workers and employers. Across the industrialised world, significant levels of low-level violence such as abuse and threats are now being reported in a range of jobs. While assaults while on the job remain relatively rare in Australia, the potential for the incidence to increase cannot be ignored.

Occupational violence has been defined as "incidents where staff are abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances related to their work, including commuting to and from work, involving the explicit or implicit challenge to their safety, wellbeing or health." In the previous issue of this series (no. 9), the three major types of occupational violence were described (external, client-initiated, and internal organisational). Here, measures for the prevention of occupational violence are summarised.

Unfortunately, the complete elimination and prevention of homicide is unlikely in the foreseeable future. However, strategies exist that can be used to reduce the likelihood of homicide victimisation and offending where the risk is greatest.

Crime does not occur everywhere, or to everyone all the time. It tends to be concentrated on particular areas, and on particular places and people within them. A concentration of crime on an individual person, household or business is known as repeat victimisation.

The range of benefits that sport and other physical activities can have in preventing or reducing crime and other antisocial behaviours among young people are widely documented. However, a shortage of good long-term research means that it is difficult to fully appreciate the impacts these sorts of programs may have over time.

Identity-related fraud is a growing concern in Australia. Today it is possible for someone to obtain a range of identifying documents and/or information through fraud, deception or theft. Completely false documents can also be created using stolen personal information. These documents can then be misused in order to profit at our expense. For example, bank account details, date of birth and tax file numbers can be used to take funds out of bank accounts or fraudulently apply for loans.

The approach selected to measure the relative costs and benefits of crime prevention programs can have an important effect on decisions about future spending priorities and directions for crime prevention work. The terms "cost-benefit analysis" and "cost effectiveness" are frequently used interchangeably. However, while they measure similar things, they provide different and separately useful information. Further, they are only two approaches used to analyse program costs and benefits. The following summarises some of the possible choices.

A comparison of the costs and benefits of similar crime prevention programs will not necessarily show that one program is better than another. For example, one program may produce a net benefit for one group, while another will benefit a different group. In addition, resources are often spread across a number of programs intended to generate overall crime prevention benefits for a variety of groups. In order to produce the best "mix" of programs, a practical decision-making framework is required.

Problem-Oriented Policing (POP) is a method for improving police effectiveness through examining and acting on the underlying conditions that give rise to community problems. Responses emphasise prevention, go beyond the criminal justice system alone, and engage with other public agencies, the community and the private sector, where practical.

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance systems are an increasingly common crime prevention initiative in Australia. A recent study reported that CCTV systems were in operation in 33 major urban centres in every state and territory, except the NT.

CCTV will often be used around public space in urban centres and on public housing estates; in retail malls, individual shops and banks (particularly around Automatic Teller Machines); on public transport (including stations, trains, buses and taxis); and in car parks.

Local government is increasingly seen to be a key player in the development and implementation of community level crime prevention programs. Across Australia, virtually all government crime prevention agencies include local government in the development and delivery of their respective crime prevention strategies.

The term "restorative justice" is often used to describe many different practices that occur at various stages of the criminal justice system including: