How best to respond to and manage intoxicated offenders is a concern shared by policing agencies across Australia. Intoxicated offenders present additional behavioural and health risks during their interaction with police. These risks may result in harm to the officers, the offender or the community. This research examined how intoxication influences the nature and magnitude of the risk associated with police officer/offender interactions. Using data from the National Deaths in Custody Program, a qualitative sample of 41 cases were analysed. These cases involved offenders who died in police custody and who, according to autopsy results, had alcohol or drugs in their system at the time of death. Results showed that, while intoxication influences an offender’s behaviour and health, the overall level of risk during the interaction was determined by the interplay between these two elements and the police response. This interplay between intoxicated behaviours, health risks and police responses should be considered in the development of policies and practices to minimise harm.
References
URLs correct at September 2024
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013a. Heroin facts. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130409095621/http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/heroin
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013b. Benzodiazepines. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130409095538/http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/benzodiazepines
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2014. Amphetamines. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130409095529/http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/amphetamines
American Psychiatric Association (APA) 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed). Washington, DC: APA
Beck A & Heinz A 2013. Alcohol-related aggression: Social and neurobiological factors. Deutsches Arzteblatt International 110(42): 711–715
Briscoe S & Donnelly N 2001. Assaults on licensed premises in inner-urban areas. Sydney: NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2001/ab02-assaults-on-licensed-premises-in-inner-urban-areas.html
Budney AJ, Moore BA, Vandrey RG & Hughes JR 2003. The time course and significance of cannabis withdrawal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112(3): 393–402
Coghlan S, Gannoni A, Goldsmid S, Patterson, E & Willis M 2015. Drug use monitoring in Australia: 2013–14 report on drug use among police detainees. Monitoring Report no. 27. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/mr/mr27
Copeland J, Frewen A & Elkins K 2009. Management of cannabis use disorder and related issues: A clinician’s guide. Sydney: National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130425211100/http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/news/ncpic-news/article/management-of-cannabis-use-disorder-and-related-issues-a-clinicians-guide
Darke S, Kaye S, McKetin R & Duflou J 2008. The major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use. Drug and Alcohol Review 27(3): 253–262
Dawe S, Davis P, Lapworth K & McKetin R 2009. Mechanisms underlying aggressive and hostile behaviour in amphetamine users. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 22: 269–273
Department of Health and Ageing 2008. Patterns of use and harms associated with specific populations of methamphetamine users in Australia- exploratory research. Canberra: Department of Health. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20090913210201/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/phd-npi-methamphetamine-report-feb09
Doherty SJ & Roche AM 2003. Alcohol and licensed premises: Best practice in policing. Adelaide: Australasian Centre for Policing Research. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20180319075824/http://nceta.flinders.edu.au/nceta/research_and_projects/past_projects_
and_research/liquor-licensing-in-australia/
Donnelly N, Scott L, Poynton S, Weatherburn D & Shanahan M 2007. Estimating the short-term cost of police time spent dealing with alcohol-related crime in NSW. NDLERF Monograph Series No. 25. Hobart: National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/ndlerfmonograph/ndlerfmonograph25
Fuller G, Goldsmid S, Brown R forthcoming. Managing intoxicated offenders: Best practice in responding to individuals affected by drugs and alcohol. NDLERF Monograph Series No. XX. Canberra: NDLERF. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/ndlerfmonograph/ndlerfmonograph65
Graham K 1980. Theories of intoxicated aggression. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement 12(2): 141
Graham K et al. 1998. Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression. Addiction 93(5): 659–676
Lintzeris N et al. 2006. National clinical guidelines and procedures for the use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid dependence. Canberra: Attorney-General’s Department. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20110314044814/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Content/
buprenorphine-guide
Lyneham M & Chan A 2013. Deaths in Custody in Australia to 30 June 2011: Twenty years of monitoring by the National Deaths in Custody Program since the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody. Monitoring report no. 20. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/mr/mr20
Maxwell J 2005. Emerging research on methamphetamine. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 18:235–242
McCabe SE, Cranford JA, Morales M & Young A 2006. Simultaneous and concurrent poly-drug use of alcohol and prescription drugs: Prevalence, correlates and consequences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67(4): 529–537
McKetin R, Lubman D, Najman J, Dawe S, Butterworth P & Baker A 2014. Does methamphetamine use increase violent behaviour? Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Addiction 109:798–806
Medina KL & Shear PK 2007. Anxiety, depression & behavioral symptoms of executive dysfunction in ecstasy users: Contributions of polydrug use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 87(2–3): 303–311
Morgan A & McAtamney A 2009. Key issues in alcohol-related violence. Research in practice no. 4. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/rip/rip4
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2011. Mixing cannabis and alcohol. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130424080126/http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/cannabis-information/factsheets/article/mixing-cannabis-and-alcohol
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2009. Australian guidelines to reduce health risks from drinking alcohol. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20091028230106/http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/ds10syn.htm
NSW Department of Health 2008. NSW Drug and Alcohol Withdrawal Clinical Practice Guidelines. Mental Health and Drug & Alcohol Office. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20100101060107/http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/policies/gl/2008/GL2008_011.html
Palk G R M, Davey J D & Freeman J E 2007. The prevalence and characteristics of alcohol-related incidents requiring police attendance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 68(4): 575-581
Poynton S, Donnelly N, Weatherburn D, Fulde G & Scott L 2005. The role of alcohol in injuries presenting to St Vincent’s Hospital Emergency Department and the associated short-term costs. Alcohol studies bulletin no. 6. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2005/ab06-the-role-of-alcohol-in-injuries-presenting-to-st-vincents-hospital-ed-and-the-associated-short-term-costs.html
Sexton R L, Carlson R G, Leukefeld C G & Booth B M 2009. An ethnographic exploration of self-reported violence among rural methamphetamine users. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 8(1): 35–53
WHO 2009. Violence prevention the evidence: Preventing violence by reducing the available and harmful use of alcohol. Switzerland: WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/violence-prevention-the-evidence
WHO 2014. Management of substance abuse – Acute intoxication. World Health Organization.