National review of child sexual abuse and sexual assault legislation in Australia

URLs correct as at September 2023

ABS—see Australian Bureau of Statistics

ACT Government 2021. Listen. Take action to prevent, believe and heal. Canberra: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Steering Committee, ACT Government. https://www.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/2390204/Listen-Take-Action-to-Prevent-Believe-and-Heal.pdf

ALRC—see Australian Law Reform Commission

Anderson J, Richards K & Willis K 2012. Evaluation of the ACT Sexual Assault Reform Program (SARP): Final report. Technical and background paper series no. 51. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tbp/tbp51

Arstein-Kerslake A 2015. Understanding sex: The right to legal capacity to consent to sex. Disability & Society 30(10): 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2015.1116059

Attorney General’s Department of NSW 2005. Responding to sexual assault: The way forward. Criminal Justice Sexual Offences Taskforce report, Criminal Law Review Division. Sydney: Oxford Publishing. https://dcj.nsw.gov.au/documents/about-us/engage-with-us/public-consultations/unsorted/cjsot_report.pdf

Australian Attorney-General’s Department 2022. The meeting of Attorneys-General work plan to strengthen criminal justice responses to sexual assault. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia (Attorney-General’s Department). https://www.ag.gov.au/crime/publications/work-plan-strengthen-criminal-justice-responses-sexual-assault-2022-27

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2023a. Personal safety, Australia. Canberra: ABS. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/personal-safety-australia/latest-release

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2023b. Recorded Crime – Victims. Canberra: ABS. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/recorded-crime-victims/latest-release

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021. Sexual Violence – Victimisation. https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/sexual-violence-victimisation

Australian Department of Social Services 2022. National plan to end violence against women and children 2022–2032. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia (Department of Social Services). https://www.dss.gov.au/ending-violence

Australian Department of Social Services 2009. Time for action: The National Council’s plan for Australia to reduce violence against women and their children 2009–2021 – A snapshot. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia (Department of Social Services). https://www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/women/publications-articles/reducing-violence/national-plan-to-reduce-violence-against-women-and-their-children/time-for-action-the-national-councils-plan-for-australia-to-reduce-violence-against-women-and-their-children-2009-2021-a

Australian Institute of Family Studies 2020. Mandatory reporting of child abuse and neglect. CFCA Resource Sheet. Child Family Community Australia. https://aifs.gov.au/resources/resource-sheets/mandatory-reporting-child-abuse-and-neglect

Australian Institute of Family Studies 2017. Current approaches to preventing and responding to sexual assault: A rapid evidence assessment. https://aifs.gov.au/research/commissioned-reports/current-approaches-preventing-and-responding-sexual-assault-rapid

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2020. Sexual assault in Australia. Canberra: AIHW. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/domestic-violence/sexual-assault-in-australia

Australian Law Reform Commission & NSW Law Reform Commission 2010. Family Violence – A national legal response: Final report. ALRC Report 114, NSWLRC Report 128. Sydney: Australian Law Reform Commission. https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/family-violence-a-national-legal-response-alrc-report-114/

Bachand T 2019. Lazarus in Tasmania: Comparing the responsibility to communicate and ascertain consent under New South Wales and Tasmanian Law. University of Tasmania Law Review 38(1): 117–124

Bluett-Boyd N & Fileborn B 2014. Victim/survivor-focused justice responses and reforms to criminal court practice: Implementation, current practice and future directions. Research Report No. 27. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/research/research-reports/victimsurvivor-focused-justice-responses-and-reforms-criminal-court

Boxall H & Lawler S 2021. How does domestic violence escalate over time? Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 626. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/ti78139

Boxall H, Tomison A & Hulme S 2014. Historical review of sexual offence and child sexual abuse legislation in Australia: 1788–2013. Special report. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/special/special-7

Bright S, Roach C, Barnaba L, Walker S & Millsteed M 2021. Attrition of sexual offence incidents through the Victorian criminal justice system: 2021 update. Melbourne: Crime Statistics Agency. https://www.crimestatistics.vic.gov.au/research-and-evaluation/publications/attrition-of-sexual-offence-incidents-through-the-victorian

Bronitt S & McSherry B 2017. Principles of criminal law, 4th ed. Pyrmont, NSW: Thomson Reuters

Burgin R 2019. Persistent narratives of force and resistance: Affirmative consent as law reform. British Journal of Criminology 59(2): 296–314. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azy043

Burgin R & Crowe J 2020. The New South Wales Law Reform Commission draft proposals on consent in sexual offences: A missed opportunity? Current Issues in Criminal Justice 32: 346–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2020.1801151

Burgin R & Flynn A 2021. Women’s behavior as implied consent: Male “reasonableness” in Australian rape law. Criminology & Criminal Justice 21(3): 334–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895819880953

Cashmore J, Taylor A & Parkinson P 2020. Fourteen-year trends in the criminal justice response to child sexual abuse reports in New South Wales. Child Maltreatment 25(1): 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559519853042

Chesser B & Zahra A 2019. Stealthing: a criminal offence? Current Issues in Criminal Justice 31(2): 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2019.1604474

Cockburn H 2012 The impact of introducing an affirmative model of consent and changes to the defence of mistake in Tasmanian rape trials (Doctoral thesis). Hobart: University of Tasmania

Council of Europe 2021. Gender equality and the Istanbul Convention: A decade of action. Berlin: Council of Europe. https://edoc.coe.int/en/gender-equality/10289-gender-equality-and-the-istanbul-convention-a-decade-of-action.html

Croskery-Hewitt S 2015. Rethinking sexual consent: Voluntary intoxication and affirmative consent to sex. New Zealand Universities Law Review 26(3): 614–641

Crowe J & Lee B 2020. The mistake of fact excuse in Queensland rape law: Some problems and proposals for reform. University of Queensland Law Journal 39(1): 1–32. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3565534

Dallaston E & Mathews B 2022. Reforming Australian criminal laws against persistent child sexual abuse. Sydney Law Review 44(1): 77–109

Dallaston E & Mathews B 2021. ‘Unlawful sexual relationships’: A comparative analysis of criminal laws against persistent child sexual abuse in Queensland and South Australia. The Adelaide Law Review 42(1): 1–37

Daly K 2011. Conventional and innovative justice responses to sexual violence.Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/resources/practice-guides/conventional-and-innovative-justice-responses-sexual-violence

deMause L 1974. The evolution of childhood. Journal of Psychohistory 1(4): 503

Director of Public Prosecutions (ACT) and Australian Federal Police 2005. Responding to sexual assault: The challenge of change. Canberra: Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions

Duffy J 2021. Sexual offending and the meaning of consent in the Queensland criminal code. Criminal Law Journal 45(2): 93–113. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/210553/

Duffy J & Burton K 2022. A review of the new legislative definition of consent in Queensland: An opportunity for Western Australia? University of Queensland Law Journal 41(2): 189–209. https://journal.law.uq.edu.au/index.php/uqlj/article/view/6133

Dyer A 2019. Yes! To communication about consent; No! To affirmative consent: A reply to Anna Kerr. Griffith Journal of Law & Human Dignity 7(1): 17–56. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3448396

Easteal P 2011. Sexual assault law in Australia: Contextual challenges and changes In N Westmarland & G Gangoli (eds), International approaches to rape. Bristol: Policy Press Scholarship Online: 13–34

eSafety Commissioner 2020. Sending nudes and sexting. https://www.esafety.gov.au/parents/big-issues/sending-nudes-sexting#the-consequences-can-be-serious

Esmail S & Boncannon B 2022. Approaches to determine and manage sexual consent abilities for people with cognitive disabilities: Systematic review. Interactive Journal of Medical Research 11(1): e28137. https://doi.org/10.2196/28137

Essack Z & Toohey J 2019. Unpacking the 2-year age-gap provision in relation to the decriminalisation of underage consensual sex in South Africa. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law 11(2): 85–88. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAJBL.2018.v11i2.00657

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights nd. Sanctions for sexual offences. https://fra.europa.eu/en/content/sanctions-sexual-offences

Fairall P & Barrett M 2016. Criminal defences in Australia, 5th ed. Sydney: LexisNexis Australia

Ferzan KK 2016. Consent, culpability, and the law of rape. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 13(2): 397–439.
https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/2329/

Fileborn B 2011. Sexual assault laws in Australia. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/resources/practice-guides/sexual-assault-laws-australia

Flegel M 2009. Conceptualizing cruelty to children in nineteenth-century England: Literature, representation, and the NSPCC. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing

Flynn A, Powell A, Scott AJ & Cama E 2022. Deepfakes and digitally altered imagery abuse: A cross-country exploration of an emerging form of image-based sexual abuse. British Journal of Criminology 62(6): 1341–1358.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azab111

Galliano G, Noble LM, Travis LA & Puechl C 1993. Victim reactions during rape/sexual assault: A preliminary study of the immobility response and its correlates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 8(1): 109–114.
https://doi.org/10.1177/088626093008001008

Gillen J 2019. Gillen Review: Report into the law and procedures in serious sexual offences in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Department of Justice. https://www.justice-ni.gov.uk/publications/gillen-review-report-law-and-procedures-serious-sexual-offences-ni

Goldman J & Ronken C 2000. The concept of childhood. In Project AXIS: Child sexual abuse in Queensland: Selected research papers. Milton: Queensland Crime Commission. https://www.ccc.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-02/Project-AXIS-Volume-4-Selected-research-papers-Report-2000.pdf

Goudsmit Samaritter M 2021. What makes a sex crime? A fair label for image-based sexual abuse. Boom Strafblad 2(2): 67–73.
https://doi.org/10.5553/bsb/266669012021002002005

Grace Tame Foundation 2022. The harmony campaign. https://www.thegracetamefoundation.org.au/the-harmony-campaign

Gruber A 2016. Not affirmative consent. University of the Pacific Law Review 47: 683–707. https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/faculty-articles/12/

Hébert M, Tourigny M, Cyr M, McDuff P & Joly J 2009. Prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and timing of disclosure in a representative sample of adults from Quebec. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 54(9): 631–636.
https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370905400908

Henry N & Powell A 2018. Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 19(2): 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650189

Human Dignity Trust 2019. Good practice in human rights compliant sexual offences laws in the Commonwealth. London: Human Dignity Trust. https://www.humandignitytrust.org/resources/good-practice-in-human-rights-compliant-sexual-offences-laws-in-the-commonwealth/

Jurasz O & Barker K 2021. Sexual violence in the digital age: A criminal law conundrum? German Law Journal 22: 784–799.
https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2021.39

Kalaf J et al. 2017. Sexual trauma is more strongly associated with tonic immobility than other types of trauma: A population-based study. Journal of Affective Disorders 215: 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.009

Kennedy AC & Prock KA 2016. A review of the role of stigma and stigmatization among female survivors of child sexual abuse, sexual assault, and intimate partner violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 19(5): 512–527.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016673601

Kerr A 2019. Cups of tea, joyriding and shaking hands: The vexed issue of consent. Griffith Journal of Law & Human Dignity 7(1): 1–16. https://griffithlawjournal.org/index.php/gjlhd/article/view/1177

Kirchengast T & Finlay L 2022. Criminal Law in Australia, 3rd ed. Lexis Nexis Australia

Larcombe W 2011. Falling rape conviction rates: (Some) feminist aims and measures for rape law. Feminist Legal Studies 19(1): 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-011-9169-2

Law Reform Commission of Western Australia 2022. Project 113 sexual offences: Discussion paper volume 1: Objectives, consent and mistake of fact. Perth: Government of Western Australia

Lemaigre C, Taylor EP & Gittoes C 2017. Barriers and facilitators to disclosing sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review. Child Abuse & Neglect 70: 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.05.009

London K, Bruck M, Wright DB & Ceci SJ 2008. Review of the contemporary literature on how children report sexual abuse to others: Findings, methodological issues, and implications for forensic interviewers. Memory 16(1): 29–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701725732

Martschuk N, Powell MB, Blewer R & Goodman-Delahunty J 2022. Legal decision making about (child) sexual assault complaints: the importance of the information-gathering process. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 34(1): 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2021.1978213

Mason G & Monaghan J 2019. Autonomy and responsibility in sexual assault law in NSW: The Lazarus cases. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 31(1): 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2018.1556284

Mathews B et al. 2023. The prevalence of child maltreatment in Australia: Findings from a national survey. Medical Journal of Australia 218(6): 13–18. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.51873

New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research 2023. NSW recorded crime statistics quarterly update March 2023. Sydney: New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. https://bocsar.nsw.gov.au/research-evaluations/2023/rcs2023q1-pagesummary.html

New South Wales Department of Attorney General & Justice 2013. Review of the Consent Provisions for Sexual Assault Offences in the Crimes Act 1900. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Attorney General & Justice. https://dcj.nsw.gov.au/documents/about-us/engage-with-us/public-consultations/unsorted/consent_review.pdf

New South Wales Department of Justice 2017. Child sexual offences review. Sydney: New South Wales Government. https://dcj.nsw.gov.au/about-us/engage-with-us/past-consultations/statutory-reviews/Child-Sexual-Offences-Review.html

New South Wales Law Reform Commission 2020. Consent in relation to sexual offences. Report no. 148. Sydney: New South Wales Government. https://lawreform.nsw.gov.au/publications/reports.html

New South Wales Law Reform Commission 2018. Consent in relation to sexual offences. Consultation paper no. 21. Sydney: New South Wales Government. https://lawreform.nsw.gov.au/publications/consultation-papers.html

North A 2022. Legislating consent in sexual relations: How significant is the move to affirmative consent? Alternative Law Journal 48(1): 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969X221135202

Northern Territory Department of Justice 2011. Review of vulnerable witness legislation. Darwin: Legal Policy Division, Northern Territory Department of Justice. https://justice.nt.gov.au/law-reform-reviews/published-reports-outcomes-and-historical-consultations/outcomes-of-consultation-and-reviews-reports

Northern Territory Government 2021. Northern Territory sexual violence prevention and response framework 2020–2028. Darwin: Northern Territory Government. https://tfhc.nt.gov.au/domestic-family-and-sexual-violence-reduction/sexual-violence-prevention-and-response

Northern Territory Government 2007. Ampe Akelyernemane Meke Mekarle ‘Little children are sacred’. Report of the Northern Territory Board of Inquiry into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse. Darwin: Northern Territory Government. https://humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/57.4 “Little Children are Sacred” report.pdf

Northern Territory Law Reform Committee 2023. Inquiry into consent for sexual offences. Discussion paper. https://justice.nt.gov.au/law-reform-reviews/law-reform-committee-and-contacts/Inquiry-into-Consent-for-Sexual-Offences-Discussion-Paper

NSWLRC—see New South Wales Law Reform Commission

Parrott S & Chesser B 2022. Stealthing: Legislating for change. Canberra: The Australia Institute. https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/stealthing-legislating-for-change/

Pattavina A, Morabito M & Williams LM 2016. Examining connections between the police and prosecution in sexual assault case processing: Does the use of exceptional clearance facilitate a downstream orientation? Victims & Offenders 11(2): 315–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2015.1046622

Pavan E & Lavorgna A 2022. Promises and pitfalls of legal responses to image-based sexual abuse: Critical insights from the Italian case. In A Powell, A Flynn & L Sugiura (eds), The Palgrave handbook of gendered violence and technology. Springer International Publishing: 545–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83734-1_27

Pineau L 1989. Date rape: A feminist analysis. Law and Philosophy 8(2): 217–243

Powell A, Scott AJ, Flynn A & Henry N 2020. Image-based sexual abuse: An international study of victims and perpetrators. A Summary Report. Melbourne: RMIT University. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35166.59209

QLRC—see Queensland Law Reform Commission

Queensland Department of Justice and Attorney-General 2022. Director’s Guidelines as at 30 June 2016. https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/dataset/odpp/resource/14407a5c-e40f-4301-b64c-28ce0dc94ba5

Queensland Government 2022. Response to report two from the taskforce. https://www.justice.qld.gov.au/initiatives/queensland-government-response-womens-safety-justice-taskforce-recommendations/response-to-report-two-from-the-taskforce

Queensland Law Reform Commission 2020. Review of consent laws and the excuse of mistake of fact. Report no. 78. Brisbane: Queensland Government. https://www.qlrc.qld.gov.au/publications/reports

Quilter J 2020. Getting consent ‘right’: Sexual assault law reform in New South Wales. Australian Feminist Law Journal 46(2): 225–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/13200968.2021.1930434

Quilter J 2011. Re-framing the rape trial: Insights from critical theory about the limitations of legislative reform. The Australian Feminist Law Journal 35(1): 23–56

Quilter J, McNamara L & Porter M 2023. The most persistent rape myth? A qualitative study of ‘delay’ in complaint in Victorian rape trials. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 35: 4–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2022.2090089

Randall M 2010. Sexual assault law, credibility, and ‘ideal victims’: Consent, resistance, and victim blaming. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 22: 397–433

Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse 2017. Final report: Recommendations. Canberra: Australian Government. https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/recommendations

Scott JG et al. 2023. The association between child maltreatment and mental disorders in the Australian Child Maltreatment Study (supplement). Medical Journal of Australia 218(6): S26–S33. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.51870

Standing Committee of Attorneys-General 1999. Model Criminal Code Officers Committee Draft Model Criminal Code. Chapter 5: Sexual offences against the person. Canberra: Attorney-General’s Department

State of Victoria 2013. Review of sexual offences: Consultation paper. Melbourne: Criminal Law Review, Department of Justice. https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2013-10/apo-nid36127.pdf

Stubbs J 2003. Sexual assault, criminal justice, and law and order. Women Against Violence 14: 14–26. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1084681

Tasmania Department of Justice 2019. Proposal paper – Renaming sexual offences: Removing outdated language in Chapter XIV of the Criminal Code Act 1924. Tasmania: Department of Justice. https://www.justice.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/554840/Proposal-Paper-for-Renaming-of-Chapter-XIV-Sexual-Offences-FINAL.pdf

Tasmania Law Reform Institute 2018. Consensual assault. Final report no. 25. Hobart: Tasmania Law Reform Institute. https://www.utas.edu.au/law-reform/publications/completed-law-reform-projects

Tasmania Law Reform Institute 2012. Sexual offences against young people. Final report no. 18. Hobart: Tasmania Law Reform Institute. https://www.utas.edu.au/law-reform/publications/completed-law-reform-projects

Taylor SC & Gassner L 2010. Stemming the flow: Challenges for policing adult sexual assault with regard to attrition rates and under‐reporting of sexual offences. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal 11(3): 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614260902830153

Tidmarsh P & Hamilton G 2020. Misconceptions of sexual crimes against adult victims: Barriers to justice. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 611. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.52922/ti04824

UN Women 2012. Handbook for legislation on violence against women. New York: UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2012/12/handbook-for-legislation-on-violence-against-women

United Nations General Assembly 2022. Intensification of efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: Report of the Secretary-General. New York: United Nations General Assembly. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2022/08/intensification-of-efforts-to-eliminate-all-forms-of-violence-against-women-report-of-the-secretary-general-2022

Victorian Law Reform Commission 2021. Improving the justice system response to sexual offences. Melbourne: Victorian Law Reform Commission. https://www.lawreform.vic.gov.au/publication/improving-the-justice-system-response-to-sexual-offences/

Victorian Law Reform Commission 2004. Sexual offences: Final report. Melbourne: Victorian Law Reform Commission. https://www.lawreform.vic.gov.au/publication/sexual-offences-report-2004/

VLRC—see Victorian Law Reform Commission

Warner K 2012. Setting the boundaries of child sexual assault: Consent and mistake as to age defences. Melbourne University Law Review 36(3): 1009–1036

Webster K et al. 2018. Australians’ attitudes to violence against women and gender equality: Findings from the 2017 National Community Attitudes towards Violence against Women Survey (NCAS). Sydney: ANROWS. https://ncas.anrows.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/NCAS-report-2018.pdf

Woiwod DM & Connolly DA 2017. Continuous child sexual abuse: Balancing defendants’ rights and victims’ capabilities to particularize individual acts of repeated abuse. Criminal Justice Review 42(2): 206–225.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016817704700

Women’s Safety and Justice Taskforce 2022. Hear her voice: Report 2 Volume 1. Women and girls’ experiences across the criminal justice system. Brisbane: Women’s Safety and Justice Taskforce. https://www.womenstaskforce.qld.gov.au/publications

World Health Organization 1999. Report of the consultation on child abuse prevention. Geneva: WHO

Zydervelt S, Zajac R, Kaladelfos A & Westera N 2017. Lawyers’ strategies for cross-examining rape complainants: Have we moved beyond the 1950s? British Journal of Criminology 57(3): 551–569. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw023